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Alzheimer’s Disease affects millions of people worldwide, but till today, the gold standard
for definitive diagnosis of this disease is a biopsy. Nevertheless, with the progress
of the disease, a volume loss in the Hippocampus can be observed. Therefore, good
segmentation methods are crucial to facilitate quantification of this loss.
The focus of this work is on the development of a Machine Learning algorithm, more
precisely a Generative Adversarial Network, for the automated segmentation of the
human Hippocampus and its substructures in Magnetic Resonance Images. In particular,
the task is to determine if the integration of a pre-trained network that generates
segmentations into a Generative Adversarial Network scheme can improve generated
segmentations. In this context, a segmentation network in form of a U-net corresponds
to the generator. The discriminator is developed separately and merged in a second
step with the generator for combined training.
With a literature review regarding the automated segmentation of the Hippocampus,
current methods in this field and their medical and technological basics were identified.
The datasets were preprocessed to make them suitable for the use in a neural
network. In the training process, the generator was trained first until convergence.
Then, the Generative Adversarial Network including the pre-trained generator was
trained. The outcomes were evaluated via cross-validation in two different datasets
(Kulaga-Yoskovitz and Winterburn). The Generative Adversarial Network scheme
was tested regarding different architectural and training aspects, including the usage
of skip-connections and a combined loss function.
The best results were achieved in the Kulaga-Yoskovitz dataset with a Dice coefficient
of 90.84 % after the combined training of generator and discriminator with a joined
loss function. This improves the current state of the art method in the same task and
dataset with a Dice index of 88.79 % by Romero [Rom17]. Except of two cases in the
Winterburn dataset, the proposed combined method could always improve the Dice
results after the training of only the generator, even though only by a small amount.
In this bachelor thesis, different models for predicting the influenza virus are
examined in more detail.
The focus is on epidemiological compartmental models, as well as on different
Machine Learning approaches.
In particular, the basics chapter presents the SIR model and its various extensions.
Furthermore, Deep Learning and Social Network approaches are
investigated and the applied methods of a selected article are analysed in more
detail.
The practical part of this work consists in the implementation of a Multiple
Linear Regression model and an Artificial Neural Network. For the development
of both models the programming language Python was chosen using the
Deep Learning Framework Keras.
Tests were performed with real data from the Réseau Sentinelles, a French
organisation for monitoring national health.
The results of the tests show that the Neural Network is able to make better
predictions than the Multiple Linear Regression model.
The discussion shows ideas for improving influenza prediction including the
establishment of a worldwide collaboration between the surveillance centres as
well as the consolidation of historical data with real-time social media data.
Therefore, this work consists of a state-of-the art of models regarding the
spread of influenza virus, the development and comparison of several models
programmed in Python, evaluated on real data.
Development and validation of a neural network for adaptive gait cycle detection from kinematic data
(2020)
(1) Background: Instrumented gait analysis is a tool for quantification of the different
aspects of the locomotor system. Gait analysis technology has substantially evolved over
the last decade and most modern systems provide real-time capability. The ability to
calculate joint angles with low delays paves the way for new applications such as real-time
movement feedback, like control of functional electrical stimulation in the rehabilitation
of individuals with gait disorders. For any kind of therapeutic application, the timely
determination of different gait phases such as stance or swing is crucial. Gait phases are
usually estimated based on heuristics of joint angles or time points of certain gait events.
Such heuristic approaches often do not work properly in people with gait disorders due to
the greater variability of their pathological gait pattern. To improve the current state-ofthe-
art, this thesis aims to introduce a data-driven approach for real-time determination
of gait phases from kinematic variables based on long short-term memory recurrent neural
networks (LSTM RNNs).
(2) Methods: In this thesis, 56 measurements with gait data of 11 healthy subjects,
13 individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury and 10 stroke survivors with walking
speeds ranging from 0.2 m
s up to 1 m
s were used to train the networks. Each measurement
contained kinematic data from the corresponding subject walking on a treadmill for 90
seconds. Kinematic data was obtained by measuring the positions of reflective markers on
body landmarks (Helen Hayes marker set) with a sample rate of 60Hz. For constructing a
ground truth, gait data was annotated manually by three raters. Two approaches, direct
regression of gait phases and estimation via detection of the gait events Initial Contact
and Final Contact were implemented for evaluation of the performance of LSTM RNNs.
For comparison of performance, the frequently cited coordinate- and velocity-based event
detection approaches of Zeni et al. were used. All aspects of this thesis have been
implemented within MATLAB Version 9.6 using the Deep Learning Toolbox.
(3) Results: The mean time difference between events annotated by the three raters
was −0.07 ± 20.17ms. Correlation coefficients of inter-rater and intra-rater reliability
yielded mainly excellent or perfect results. For detection of gait events, the LSTM RNN
algorithm covered 97.05% of all events within a scope of 50ms. The overall mean time
difference between detected events and ground truth was −11.62 ± 7.01ms. Temporal
differences and deviations were consistently small over different walking speeds and gait
pathologies. Mean time difference to the ground truth was 13.61 ± 17.88ms for the
coordinate-based approach of Zeni et al. and 17.18 ± 15.67ms for the velocity-based
approach. For estimation of gait phases, the gait phase was determined as a percentage.
Mean squared error to the ground truth was 0.95 ± 0.55% for the proposed algorithm
using event detection and 1.50 ± 0.55% for regression. For the approaches of Zeni et al.,
mean squared error was 2.04±1.23% for the coordinate-based approach and 2.24±1.34%
for the velocity-based approach. Regarding mean absolute error to the ground truth, the
proposed algorithm achieved a mean absolute error of 1.95±1.10% using event detection
and one of 7.25 ± 1.45% using regression. Mean absolute error for the coordinate-based
approach of Zeni et al. was 4.08±2.51% and 4.50±2.73% for the velocity-based approach.
(4) Conclusion: The newly introduced LSTM RNN algorithm offers a high recognition
rate of gait events with a small delay. Its performance outperforms several state-of-theart
gait event detection methods while offering the possibility for real-time processing
and high generalization of trained gait patterns. Additionally, the proposed algorithm
is easy to integrate into existing applications and contains parameters that self-adapt
to individuals’ gait behavior to further improve performance. In respect to gait phase
estimation, the performance of the proposed algorithm using event detection is in line
with current wearable state-of-the-art methods. Compared with conventional methods,
performance of direct regression of gait phases is only moderate. Given the results,
LSTM RNNs demonstrate feasibility regarding event detection and are applicable for
many clinical and research applications. They may be not suitable for the estimation
of gait phases via regression. For LSTM RNNs, it can be assumed, that with a more
optimal configuration of the networks, a much higher performance is achieved.